Introduction to Submerged Cultures Mushroom Mycelium

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Brief literature review

Submerged propagation of mushroom mycelium in shaken flasks or fermentors is an easy way of producing large quantities for physiological and biochemical studies. Several industrial applications have been investigated:

1.	Production of mycelium of edible mushrooms for human and animal consumption. This subject has most recently been reviewed by Worgan [160] and Gray [56].
2.	Production of spawn for the cultivation of mushroom fruit bodies as suggested by Humfeld [74].
3.	Production of particular chemical substances like glucan [25], dehydroacetic acid [102], nucleotides [66], antibiotics [17, 117, 127, 167], tumour inhibiting substances [36] and enzymes [11, 82, 85, 104].

This thesis only deals with the cultivation of mushroom mycelium for food purposes. To this end several aspects are important, e.g. the nutritional requirements of the mycelium, its growth rate and maximum yield, the nutritional value of the product, its toxicity and flavour.

Humfeld and Sugihara [72, 73, 74, 75] reported the isolation of several strains from cultivated mushrooms. They selected three fast growing strains (NRRL 2334, 2335 and 2336) giving excellent yields in a defined medium containing glucose, urea and minerals. The nutrient value of the mycelium was satisfactory, but the flavour was weak and unlike mushroom flavour. Neither was the mycelium suitable as spawn [74]. Because of many physiological and morphological differences between the NRRL-strains and other strains of the cultivated mushroom, Molitoris [103] studied the NRRL-strains taxonomically and identified them as Beauveria tenella, an imperfect fungus which may occur on the cap of Agaricus bisporus. Hence it is not surprising that Humfeld was unable to use the mycelium as spawn and that the flavour was unsatisfactory. Our studies [26] have shown that mycelium grown in submerged culture can be used as spawn for the production of fruit bodies. Several other studies of the production of mushroom mycelium by the NRRL-strains mentioned [38, 110, 126, 140] have, of course, become inconclusive. These disappointing results illustrate the problem of isolating reliably pure cultures of mushroom mycelium.

A survey of other higher fungi that have been grown in submerged cultures (including those reported in this thesis) is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Species of higher fungi grown in submerged culture.

Genus	Species	References	Genus	Species	References
Agaricus	arvensis	33	Marasmius	oreades	33
	bernardii	33		putillius	157
	bisporus	33, 89, 130, 144, 150, this thesis		scorodonius	157
	bitorquis	137, this thesis	Morchella	augusticeps	52
	blazei	137		conica	52
	campestris	21, 33, 38, .39, 59, 60, 126, 150, 162		crassipes	21, 52, 79, 88, 93, 137
	placomyces	137		elata	53
Amanita	caesarea	144		esculenta	33, 52, 79, 88, 93, 130, this thesis
Armillaria	mellea	33, 53, 137, 157, this thesis		hortensis	52, 93, this thesis
Boletus	edulis	33, 37, 125		hybrida	39, 126
	granulatus	157		semilibera	52
	grevillei	157		vulgaris	52
	indecisus	39, 126	Myceliumradicus	atrovirens	157, 159
	variegatus	120	Oudemansiella	mucida	162, 167
Calvatia	gigantea	130, this thesis	Paxillus	prunulus	157, 159
Cantharellus	cibarius	21, 39, 137, 144, 150	Pholiota	mutabilis	157
Cantharellus	clavatus	150	Pleurotus	cornucopias	33
Cenococcum	graniforme	157		flabellatus	132
Clitocybe	nebulas	33		japonicus	162
Collybia	butyracea	157		ostreatus	21, 33, 53, 54, 130, 137, 138, this thesis
	umbudata	137
	velutipes	21, 39, 53, 66, 126, 137, 162	Polyporus	borealis	157
Coprinus	comatus	33, 137, 144, 164, this thesis	Polyporus	suphureus	137
Hebeloma	sinapizans	137	Torichoroma	matsutake	162
Kuhneromyces	mutabilis	53	Torichoroma	robustum	162
Lactarius	piperatus	144	Trametes	gibbosa	157
Lentinus	edodes	138, 141, 162, this thesis	Tricholoma	flavobrunneum	157
Lepiota	naucina	137		nudum	21, 33, 39, 53, 63, 90, 126, 137, 150
	procera	33, 137		personatum	33
	rhaeodes	33, 137		pessundatum	157
Limacium	eburneum	144	Schizophyllum	commune	137
Lycoperdon	umbrinum	137	Volvariella	volvacea	6, 33, this thesis
Marasmius	foetidus	157	Xylaria	polymorpha	39, 126

Table 1 is not complete, by way of example a number of woodrotting basidiomycetes of doubtful edibility [80] and a number of species mentioned by Espenshade [35] without any specification of culture conditions and yields are not included. In most papers fructification experiments, which are only possible with a limited number of fungi, were not reported; thus the identity of the isolates is not absolutely sure. The serious difficulties experienced in isolating pure cultures of Cantharellus species in the Netherlands in recent years [12] create doubts about the validity of results reported on submerged cultures of members of this genus.

It is not necessary to describe in this introduction all the experiments carried out with the species listed in Table 1 because there is already an extensive review by Worgan [160], who also considered the production of other metabolic products than cell substance by mushroom mycelium. Only some recent publications have to be mentioned here.

Volz [150] studied submerged growth of strains of Agaricus bisporus, Agaricus campestris, Cantharellus clavatus, Cantharellus cibarius, Pleurotus ostreatus, Tricholoma nudum and Volvariella volvacea, as well as two mutants of Agaricus bisporus and one mutant of Volvariella volvacea. He compared growth in media with 44 carbon and energy sources and 31 nitrogen sources. In addition, he examined the influence of vitamins and growth hormones.

Atacador-Ramos et al. [6] developed an optimal medium for submerged growth of Volvariella volvacea. In this medium, which contained saccharose as source of carbon and energy, urea as source of nitrogen and coconut milk for providing growth factors, they observed maximum mycelial growth (18 g/1) after 3 days. They analysed the amino acid and vitamin content of the mycelium.

Janardhanan et al. [79] used vegetable wastes (turnip and cabbage; cauliflower leaves) as the source of nitrogen for submerged growth of Morchella species. With an extract of cauliflower leaves, supplemented with 5% glucose, they observed yields up to 12.7 g/1 after 7 days.

Srivastava and Bano [132] investigated the nutritional requirements of Pleurotus flabellatus, a mushroom which is eaten by the people in Mysore State (India). The fungus grew well in shake flasks containing a synthetic medium with ammonium citrate as nitrogen source.

Guha and Banerjee [59, 60, 61] examined submerged growth of Agaricus campestris, using 14 sources of carbon and energy and 16 nitrogen sources. The basal medium contained yeast extract and minerals. The highest yield was 7.2 g/1 after 7 days in a medium containing peptone and glucose. They also published results of chemical analyses of the mycelium.

Zarudnaya [164] studied the growth of 7 species of the genus Coprinus, including Coprinus comatus. Growth after 15 - 25 days was compared using 10 carbon and energy sources and 5 nitrogen sources.

Sugimori et al. [138] screened several non-carbohydrate carbon sources (hydrocarbons, alcohols, organic acids) and found good growth of Lentinus edodes and a Schizophyllum species on ethanol. The optimum concentration of ethanol was 2% giving a yield of 10 g/1 after 3 days. They analysed the amino acid composition of the mycelium and studied the digestibility.

Hamid et al. [63] produced mycelium of Tricholoma nudum from industrial wastes (cane and beet molasses, sulphite waste liquor, spent wash, corn steep liquor), supplemented with a simple nitrogen source (ammonium tartrate, ammonium sulphate or urea), and determined the crude protein and lipid content of the mycelium. Cane molasses was the best carbon and energy source; sulphite liquor was less suitable, possibly because of the presence of toxic substances. The best yield was 17 g/1 after 3 days.

Kosaric et al. [83] also used sulphite liquor for submerged growth of Morchella species. The sulphite liquor, containing 40 to 70 g/1 of carbohydrate, was diluted 1: 5 and supplemented with ammonium phosphate and corn steep liquor. They obtained 5 g/1 of dry mycelium after 9 days. The same workers [88] reported results of amino acid and fatty acid analyses of Morchella mycelium grown in this way. They also examined the flavour by gas chromatography and by ultraviolet and infrared spectroscopy, but did not identify any flavour compound.

Ginterová [53, 54] studied submerged cultures of 11 strains of Pleurotus ostreatus. She observed that agitation of the cultures favoured the formation of monokaryotic mycelium, which could be detected microscopically due to the absence of clamp connections. Three strains of Pleurotus ostreatus and five other mushroom species were investigated for their ability to fix molecular nitrogen. Two strains of Pleurotus ostreatus and one strains of Morchella elata and Kuhneromyces mutabilis were able to fix nitrogen up to 7 mg per gram of sugar consumed in a medium of malt extract. Ginterová and Maxianová [55] confirmed the nitrogen fixation by making up the balance of nitrogen in cultures of Pleurotus ostreatus, growing and fructifying on natural substrates. Starting with 530 g of bound nitrogen, the substrate, mycelium and fruit bodies contained 714 g of nitrogen after growth. Ginterová suggested that nitrogen fixation might be quite commonly found among the higher fungi. Nitrogen fixation was also observed in cultures of Pleurotus sajorcaju by Rangaswami et al. [123].

Shannon and Stevenson [130] used brewery wastes for growth of four yeasts and four mushroom species (Agaricus bisporus, Calvatia gigantea, Morchella esculenta and Pleurotus ostreatus). High yields of Calvatia gigantea (39.7 g/1) were obtained in cultures on "trub press liquor" supplemented with ammonium sulphate, after shaking during 8 days. These authors also considered this process as a method of reducing the BOD of industrial waste. The highest BOD reduction was observed with Calvatia gigantea (75%) in "grain press liquor" supplemented with ammonium sulphate.

Yahagi [161] used an unidentified basidiomycete for the production of protein from powdered wood supplemented with a small amount of glucose and dried yeast. About 2% of the weight of the wood was converted into protein after shaking for 7 days at 20 °C.

Lee et al. [89] cultured Agaricus bisporus in tryptone-yeast extract media. The highest yield was observed after 12 days. They also used (NH₄)₂HPO₄as nitrogen source and replaced glucose with other carbohydrates.

Only a few mushroom species have been grown in submerged culture on a pilot plant scale. In the USA Morchella mycelium grown in submerged culture has been produced with the trade name "morel mushroom flavouring" [94].

Torev [144] observed rapid growth of some mushroom species in fermentors with a volume up to 50 m3. It is not clear from his article which species were used for these cultures, but they did not include Agaricus bisporus [145]. According to a recent note [3] 100 tons of mushroom mycelium were produced in the Bulgarian industry in 1974. The production will be increased to 20,000 tons per year. This is possibly the same process as that reported by Torev [144].

Obstacles to the economic production of mushroom mycelium which have to be overcome include the slow growth of most species, the rich media that are needed and a lack of delicious flavour of the product. Many species do not grow in media with simple nitrogen sources such as ammonium salts, but need a complex source of nitrogen or mixtures of amino acids. The rich medium, the slow growth and the required pH-value (often between 6 and 7) make the cultures extremely vulnerable to contamination, so that absolute sterility is required; but these disadvantages need not necessarily be prohibitive if the mycelial cultures at least develop the characteristic flavour of fruit bodies.

Previously the flavour of mushroom mycelium was mainly studied by organoleptic means and results were mostly based on a limited number of judgements. The chemical nature of the flavour of mushrooms was unknown. In recent years the knowledge of the constituents of the cultivated mushroom and of Boletus edulis has increased considerably, because of the application of modern methods such as combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Hence, it is possible now to study the production of flavour compounds in a mycelial culture by physical and chemical means.

1.2. The purpose of the present investigation

Because much work had already been done on the production of protein by higher fungi in submerged culture, the main purpose of the present investigations was to study the production of flavour compounds. To be able to grow sufficient amounts of mushroom mycelium required a detailed knowledge of the nutritional needs of the strains to be used. Because many differences may exist in the behaviour of the strains of the same fungal species, it was impossible to use data from the literature. In Chapter 2 the nutritional requirements, established experimentally for our particular strains of Agaricus bisporus and Coprinus comatus, will be reported.

On the basis of these results, the possibility of utilising the mycelium of these strains as protein sources will be discussed in Chapter 3.

The chemical nature of the flavour of Agaricus bisporus and Coprinus comatus will be dealt with in Chapter 4. The occurrence of some important flavour compounds in other edible mushrooms will also be considered.

After these investigations it was possible to study the production of flavour compounds in submerged cultures by various strains of edible mushrooms, particularly Agaricus bisporus and Coprinus comatus. The results will be reported in Chapter 5.

Some results of the submerged growth of Agaricus bisporus and Coprinus comatus have already been published [26, 27] and will in part be included in Chapters 2 and 5. Several other results of our investigations of the submerged growth of Agaricus bisporus and Coprinus comatus are in press [28] these results are included in Chapter 2. In addition, some articles on our studies of the flavour of mushrooms, described in Chapter 4, have been accepted for publication [29, 30, 31].

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 1

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